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Approve TOSCA V1.0 as an OASIS Standard

Should Topology and Orchestration Specification for Cloud Applications V1.0 from the TOSCA TC [1] be approved as an OASIS Standard?

Cloud computing offers a cost-effective way for businesses to host their applications and services in scalable environments while reducing their need to maintain their own large datacenters. It is even more valuable if applications and services can be ported to alternative cloud environments while keeping services interoperable.

The TOSCA specification provides a language to describe service components and their relationships using a service topology, and it provides for describing the management procedures that create or modify services using orchestration processes. The combination of topology and orchestration in a Service Template describes what is needed to be preserved across deployments in different environments to enable interoperable deployment of cloud services and their management throughout the complete lifecycle (e.g. scaling, patching, monitoring, etc.) when the applications are ported over alternative cloud environments.

More information on TOSCA can be found at TC's website. In addition, the TC has published a primer that gives a quick introduction to the specification [2].

URIs
The prose specification document and related files are available here:

http://docs.oasis-open.org/tosca/TOSCA/v1.0/cos01/TOSCA-v1.0-cos01.pdf (Authoritative)

http://docs.oasis-open.org/tosca/TOSCA/v1.0/cos01/TOSCA-v1.0-cos01.html

http://docs.oasis-open.org/tosca/TOSCA/v1.0/cos01/TOSCA-v1.0-cos01.doc


--- Additional information ---

[1] OASIS Topology and Orchestration Specification for Cloud Applications (TOSCA) TC
http://www.oasis-open.org/committees/tosca/

[2] Topology and Orchestration Specification for Cloud Applications (TOSCA) Primer Version 1.0
http://docs.oasis-open.org/tosca/tosca-primer/v1.0/tosca-primer-v1.0.html

Amendment Posted on Monday, 11 November 2013:
Please note that TOSCA COS01 received comments during its public review period. The log of those comments and the TC's decisions on their resolution can be found at http://docs.oasis-open.org/tosca/TOSCA/v1.0/cos01/TOSCA-v1.0-cos01-comment-resolution-log.xls

Amendment Posted on Monday, 11 November 2013:
Please note that TOSCA COS01 received comments during its public review period. The log of those comments and the TC's decisions on their resolution can be found at http://docs.oasis-open.org/tosca/TOSCA/v1.0/cos01/TOSCA-v1.0-cos01-comment-resolution-log.xls

 [ ]  Yes
 [ ]  No
Opening:   Monday, 11 November 2013 @ 12:00 am UTC
Closing:   Sunday, 24 November 2013 @ 11:59 pm UTC
Group:   OASIS organizational voting
Ballot has closed.

Referenced Items
Name Type Date Action
* 02538: Approve TOSCA V1.0 as an OASIS Standard (213K)
Document
2013-11-24
No Access

Voting Details

Voting Summary

Options with highest number of votes are bold

Option # Votes % of Total
Yes 70 100%
No 0 0%
Eligible companies who have voted: 70 of 307 23%
Eligible companies who have abstained: 0 of 307 0%
Eligible companies who have not voted: 237 of 307 77%

Voting Details

Voter Company VoteReference Document and/or Comment
Tony Giroti (Pri)
1 Efficiency, Inc.
--
 
Herbert Leitold (Pri)
A-SIT, Zentrum fur sichere Informationstec...
--
 
Ed Skoviak (Pri)
ACORD Corporation
Yes
 
Betsy Fanning (Pri)
AIIM
--
 
Massimo Battistella (Pri)
AITI-Associazione Italiana Tesorieri de Im...
--
 
Ian Ampleford (Pri)
ARM Limited
Yes
 
Celso Rodriguez (Pri)
ASG Software Solutions
Yes
 
Jenny Huang (Pri)
AT&T
Yes
 
David Ingram (Pri)
Accenture
--
 
Flavio Zeni (Pri)
Africa i-Parliaments Action Plan (UN/DESA)
--
 
Ed Koch (Pri)
Akuacom Inc.
--
 
Michael Brenner (Pri)
Alcatel-Lucent
--
 
John Newton (Pri)
Alfresco Software
Yes
 
Severin Foreman (Pri)
Altera Corporation
--
 
Ken Hirsh (Pri)
American Association of Law Libraries
--
 
Harry Rhodes (Pri)
American Health Information Management Ass...
--
 
Jim Price (Pri)
Arizona Supreme Court
Yes
 
Charles Schulz (Pri)
Ars Aperta
Yes
 
Micah Hainline (Pri)
Asynchrony Solutions, Inc.
--
 
Aviv Siegel (Pri)
AtHoc, Inc.
--
 
Gil Abel (Pri)
Athena Smartcard Solutions, Inc.
--
 
Trish Porter (Pri)
Australian Dept of Innovation, Industry, C...
--
 
Erik Rissanen (Pri)
Axiomatics
--
 
Dale Moberg (Pri)
Axway Software
Yes
 
Howard Mason (Pri)
BAE SYSTEMS plc
--
 
Abbie Barbir (Pri)
Bank of America
--
 
Alex Wang (Pri)
Beijing Sursen Electronic Technology Co, Ltd
--
 
Wang Xuelin (Pri)
Beijing WatchSmart Technologies Co., Ltd.
--
 
Arnaud Martens (Pri)
Belgian SPF Finances
--
 
Christian Sifaqui (Pri)
Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional de Chile
--
 
Edmond Bourne (Pri)
BlackBerry
--
 
Kevin Fleming (Pri)
Bloomberg Finance L.P.
--
 
Jim Tivy (Pri)
Bluestream
--
 
Paul Lipton (Pri)
CA Technologies
Yes
 
Chris Parker (Pri)
CS Transform Limited
--
 
Mendora Servin (Pri)
California Office of Legislative Counsel
--
 
Ann Cavoukian (Pri)
Canada Office of the Information & Privacy Commissioner of Ontario
--
 
Doug Allport (Pri)
Canadian Association for Public Alerting a...
--
 
Masahiro Nishio (Pri)
Canon Inc.
--
 
Aliaa Badr (Pri)
CareLex
--
 
Raul Sanchez-Reillo (Pri)
Carlos III University of Madrid
--
 
Thomas Fahy (Pri)
CellCast Technologies
--
 
Sven Gossel (Pri)
Charismathics Inc.
--
 
Haibo Li (Pri)
China Electronics Standardization Institute
--
 
Sean Shen (Pri)
China Internet Network Information Center(...
--
 
Pamela Webber (Pri)
Cisco Systems
Yes
 
Shishir Pardikar (Pri)
Citrix Systems
Yes
 
Francesco D'Andria (Pri)
Cloud4SOA
Yes
 
Duncan Johnston-Watt (Pri)
Cloudsoft Corporation Limited
Yes
 
Balaji Sethuraman (Pri)
Cognizant Technology Solutions
--
 
JoAnn Hackos (Pri)
Comtech Services, Inc.
--
 
Martijn Kaag (Pri)
Connectis
--
 
Daniel Martínez (Pri)
Consorci Administracio Oberta de Catalunya...
--
 
Ron Zimmer (Pri)
Continental Automated Buildings Associatio...
--
 
Tom Bruce (Pri)
Cornell Law School, Legal Information Inst...
--
 
Chad La Joie (Pri)
Covisint Corporation
Yes
 
Boris Schumperli (Pri)
Cryptomathic
--
 
Graham Steel (Pri)
Cryptosense
--
 
Tim Hudson (Pri)
Cryptsoft Pty Ltd.
Yes
 
Sven Rasmussen (Pri)
Danish Agency for Digitisation, Ministry o...
--
 
Cathy Tilton (Pri)
Daon
Yes
 
Brock Maley (Pri)
Dell
--
 
Gordon Aspin (Pri)
Deloitte Consulting LLP
--
 
Juan Cruellas (Pri)
Departamento de Arquitectura de Computado...
--
 
Trine Hansen (Pri)
Det Norske Veritas (DNV)
--
 
Andreas Moravec (Pri)
Deutsche Boerse AG
Yes
 
Juergen Emhardt (Pri)
Deutsche Telekom AG
Yes
 
Jens Aabol (Pri)
Difi-Agency for Public Management and eGov...
--
 
Maciej Zaremba (Pri)
Digital Enterprise Research Institute (DER...
--
 
Oyvind Gjorven (Pri)
Directorate of Labour and Welfare Norway
--
 
Tim McGrath (Pri)
Document Engineering Services Limited
Yes
 
Timothy Bennett (Pri)
Drummond Group Inc.
--
 
Nicolas Figay (Pri)
EADS France
--
 
Rob Philpott (Pri)
EMC
Yes
 
Piero De Sabbata (Pri)
ENEA UTT PMI
--
 
Ian Skerrett (Pri)
Eclipse Foundation
Yes
 
Matt Wakefield (Pri)
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
--
 
Seunghun Jin (Pri)
Electronics and Telecommunications Researc...
--
 
Mark Nixon (Pri)
Emerson Process Management
--
 
Thomas Sigdestad (Pri)
Enonic
--
 
Ken Macdonald (Pri)
Environment Canada
--
 
Carolina Canales-Valenzuela (Pri)
Ericsson
--
 
Claudio Fabiani (Pri)
European Parliament
--
 
Hakan Karden (Pri)
Eurostep AB
--
 
Marco Carrer (Pri)
Eurotech S.p.A.
--
 
Bart Hanssens (Pri)
Fedict
Yes
 
Geoffrey Li (Pri)
Feitian Technologies Co., Ltd.
--
 
John Havers (Pri)
First Point Global Pty Ltd.
--
 
Theo Kramer (Pri)
Flame Computing Enterprises
--
 
Irina Schmidt (Pri)
Fluid Operations
--
 
Allan Foster (Pri)
Forgerock Inc.
--
 
Daniel Mallmann (Pri)
Forschungszentrum Juelich GmbH
Yes
 
Bob Beims (Pri)
Freescale Semiconductor, Inc.
--
 
Motoyuki Watanabe (Pri)
Fuji Xerox Co., Ltd.
--
 
Makiko Shimamura (Alt)
Fujitsu Limited
Yes
 
Adam Cason (Pri)
Futurex
--
 
Matthias Lendholt (Pri)
GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences
--
 
Sean Lockhead (Pri)
GS1
Yes
 
Martijn van Berkum (Pri)
GX Software
--
 
Walter-John Turnes (Pri)
Gemini Security Solutions, Inc.
--
 
Anil John (Pri)
General Services Administration
--
 
Randy Dufault (Pri)
Genus Technologies, LLC
--
 
Shirley-Ann Fiagome (Pri)
Ghana Parliament
--
 
Brian Hainey (Pri)
Glasgow Caledonian University
--
 
Will Norris (Pri)
Google Inc.
--
 
Kel Callahan (Pri)
HIPAAT International, Inc.
--
 
Christoph Meinel (Pri)
Hasso Plattner Institute
--
 
Karen Van Hentenryck (Pri)
Health Level Seven, Inc.
--
 
Joel Fleck II (Pri)
Hewlett-Packard
Yes
 
Zhexuan Song (Pri)
Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd.
Yes
 
Dave Ings (Pri)
IBM
Yes
 
Patti Aymond (Pri)
IEM
Yes
 
Robin Gorris (Pri)
IS4U
--
 
Max Pucher (Pri)
ISIS Papyrus America Inc.
Yes
 
Patrick Durusau (Pri)
ISO/IEC JTC1/SC34
--
 
Mary Ruddy (Pri)
Identity Commons
--
 
Christof Marti (Pri)
InIT-Institute for Applied Information Tec...
Yes
 
Stefan Kaeser (Pri)
Infineon Technologies AG
--
 
Jitesh Ghai (Pri)
Informatica
--
 
Markus Jung (Pri)
Institute of Computer Aided Automation
Yes
 
Shahrokh Shahidzadeh (Pri)
Intel Corporation
--
 
John Heinen (Pri)
Intermedix Corporation
--
 
Michael Steidl (Pri)
International Press Telecommunications Cou...
--
 
Lucy Lynch (Pri)
Internet Society (ISOC)
--
 
Ken Klingenstein (Pri)
Internet2
--
 
Allan Beck (Pri)
JPMorgan Chase Bank, N.A.
Yes
 
Serge Huber (Pri)
Jahia Solutions Group SA
--
 
Thomas Smith (Pri)
Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics L...
Yes
 
Patrick Bosek (Pri)
Jorsek
--
 
Michael Alexandrou (Pri)
Judicial Council of Georgia
--
 
Tom Magliery (Pri)
JustSystems Canada, Inc.
--
 
Jos van den Oever (Pri)
KDE e.V.
--
 
John Fallows (Pri)
Kaazing
--
 
Michael Murungi (Pri)
Kenya National Council for Law Reporting
--
 
Yasuji Takeuchi (Pri)
Konica Minolta, Inc.
--
 
Bipin Shah (Pri)
Kovair Software Inc.
--
 
John Ruegg (Pri)
LA County Information Systems Advisory Body
--
 
Deb Bissantz (Pri)
LSI Corporation
--
 
Carsten Schmidt (Pri)
Land Nordrhein-Westfalen
--
 
Ruben Salazar (Pri)
Landis & Gyr
--
 
Kari Korpela (Pri)
Lappeenranta University of Technology
Yes
 
Girish Ghatikar (Pri)
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
--
 
Bassel Dohaini (Pri)
Lebanese Parliament
--
 
Laurel Shifrin (Pri)
LexisNexis, a Division of Reed Elsevier
--
 
Ray Denenberg (Pri)
Library of Congress
Yes
 
James Falkner (Pri)
Liferay, Inc.
--
 
Eric Blassin (Pri)
Lionbridge
--
 
Reinhard Schaler (Pri)
Localisation Research Centre
--
 
Melvin Greer (Pri)
Lockheed Martin
--
 
Thomas Hardjono (Pri)
M.I.T.
--
 
Mario Velazquez (Pri)
MDreieck S.A. de C.V.
--
 
Joseph Wheeler (Pri)
MTG Management Consultants, LLC.
Yes
 
Geoff Brown (Pri)
Machine-to-Machine Intelligence (M2MI) Cor...
--
 
Cyril Spasevski (Pri)
Magillem Design Services
--
 
Saseeta Ramsahye-Rakha (Pri)
Mauritius National Assembly
--
 
Mark Poston (Pri)
Mekon Limited
--
 
Bill Chown (Pri)
Mentor Graphics Corporation
--
 
Ram Jeyaraman (Pri)
Microsoft
--
 
Renuka Chatterjee (Pri)
Midwest Independent Transmission System Op...
--
 
Doraiswamy ('Raj') Rajagopal (Pri)
Mitre Corporation
--
 
Gervase Markham (Pri)
Mozilla Corporation
Yes
 
Kazmer Koleszar (Pri)
MultiRacio Ltd.
Yes
 
KEIKO MATSUNAGA (Pri)
NEC Corporation
--
 
Paul Gampe (Pri)
NEXTDC Ltd.
--
 
Eunju Kim (Pri)
NIA (National Information Society Agency)
--
 
Guido Governatori (Pri)
NICTA
Yes
 
mary brady (Pri)
NIST
--
 
Robert Bunge (Pri)
NOAA's National Weather Service
--
 
Jim Harris (Pri)
National Center for State Courts
Yes
 
Tom Bradicich (Pri)
National Instruments
--
 
Debby Wallner (Pri)
National Security Agency
--
 
Subhash Sankuratripati (Pri)
NetApp
Yes
 
Carl Schwab (Pri)
Network Centric Operations Industry Consor...
--
 
Zengfan Han (Pri)
Neusoft Corporation
--
 
Les Chasen (Pri)
Neustar, Inc.
--
 
Colin Wallis (Pri)
New Zealand Government
Yes
 
Andy Han (Pri)
NextLabs, Inc.
--
 
Yaniv Masjedi (Pri)
Nextiva
--
 
Frederick Hirsch (Pri)
Nokia Corporation
Yes
 
Timo Perala (Pri)
Nokia Siemens Networks GmbH & Co. KG
Yes
 
Nat Sakimura (Pri)
Nomura Research Institute, Ltd. (NRI)
--
 
Rae McQuade (Pri)
North American Energy Standards Board
Yes
 
Ken Baclawski (Pri)
Northeastern University
Yes
 
Tor Arne Irgens (Pri)
Norwegian Defence Logistics Organization
--
 
Michael Angelo (Pri)
Novell
--
 
Almog Aley-Raz (Pri)
Nuance
--
 
Florent Guillaume (Pri)
Nuxeo
--
 
Don Hamparian (Pri)
OCLC
--
 
Monika Horner (Pri)
OSCRE
--
 
Timothy Allen (Pri)
Oberon Technologies Inc.
--
 
Andrew Watson (Pri)
Object Management Group
--
 
Klaus Peltsch (Pri)
Ontario Canada Lottery and Gaming Corporation
--
 
David Connelly (Pri)
Open Applications Group
--
 
Carl Reed (Pri)
Open Geospatial Consortium, Inc. (OGC)
--
 
Don Thibeau (Pri)
Open Identity Exchange
--
 
Rolf Bienert (Pri)
OpenADR Alliance, Inc.
--
 
Suneet Shah (Pri)
OpenIAM, LLC
--
 
Martin Chapman (Pri)
Oracle
--
 
Mark Joseph (Pri)
P6R, Inc
--
 
Yasuyuki Nishioka (Pri)
PSLX consortium
--
 
David Helfinstine (Pri)
PTC
--
 
Nihad Elyan (Pri)
Palestinian Legislative Council
--
 
James Bottomley (Pri)
Parallels IP Holdings GmbH
--
 
Sylvia Tosar Piaggio (Pri)
Parlamento del Uruguay
--
 
Tushar Gaidhani (Pri)
Persistent Systems Limited
--
 
Patrick Harding (Pri)
Ping Identity Corporation
--
 
Kaliya Hamlin (Pri)
Planetwork, Inc.
--
 
Peter Reynolds (Pri)
Polish Association of Translation Agencies...
--
 
Himadri Banerjee (Pri)
Previstar Inc.
--
 
Dhiraj Pathak (Pri)
PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP:
Yes
 
Patrick Riley (Pri)
Prime Factors, Inc.
--
 
Tomas Gustavsson (Pri)
PrimeKey Solutions AB
--
 
Qian Jun (Pri)
Primeton Technologies, Inc.
Yes
 
David Browning (Pri)
Program Manager Information Sharing Enviro...
--
 
Jaime Meritt (Pri)
Progress Software
--
 
John Leiseboer (Pri)
QuintessenceLabs Pty Ltd.
--
 
Liang Zhang (Pri)
RDA Technologies Limited
--
 
Dick Davidse (Pri)
RFS Holland Holding B.V.
--
 
Serge Quiniou (Pri)
RSD
--
 
Eliot Kimber (Pri)
RSI Content Solutions
Yes
 
Adrian Otto (Pri)
Rackspace Hosting, Inc.
Yes
 
Michael Prompt (Pri)
Radiant Logic, Inc.
--
 
Mark Little (Pri)
Red Hat
Yes
 
Kevin Brown (Pri)
RenderX, Inc.
--
 
Michael Douglass (Pri)
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
--
 
Joerg Schwenk (Pri)
Ruhr University Bochum
Yes
 
Adrian Paschke (Pri)
RuleML, Inc.
--
 
John Joergensen (Pri)
Rutgers University School of Law
--
 
Peter Alterman (Pri)
SAFE-BioPharma Assn
--
 
Sanjay Patil (Pri)
SAP AG
Yes
 
Edgar Weippl (Pri)
SBA Research
--
 
Nuno Linhares (Pri)
SDL
Yes
 
Audun Vennesland (Pri)
SINTEF
Yes
 
Mansour Mazinani (Pri)
SITA SC
Yes
 
Serban Coss (Pri)
STMicroelectronics
--
 
Leif Johansson (Pri)
SUNET
--
 
Leif Gyllstrom (Pri)
Saab AB
--
 
Bill Becker (Pri)
SafeNet, Inc.
--
 
Mark Prutsalis (Pri)
Sahana Software Foundation
--
 
Dawn Jutla (Pri)
Saint Mary's University
--
 
Francois Jammes (Pri)
Schneider Electric Industries SAS
--
 
Garret Grajek (Pri)
SecureAuth Corporation
--
 
Dmitry Barinov (Pri)
SecureKey Technologies, Inc.
--
 
Joseph Gittens (Pri)
Security Industry Association
--
 
Charles White (Pri)
Semper Fortis Solutions, LLC.
--
 
Carlo Marchetti (Pri)
Senato della Repubblica
--
 
Marquart FRANZ (Pri)
Siemens AG
--
 
Thomas Capelle (Pri)
Sodius SAS
--
 
Prasad Yendluri (Pri)
Software AG, Inc.
Yes
 
Larry Neumann (Pri)
Solace Systems
--
 
Pim van der Eijk (Pri)
Sonnenglanz Consulting
Yes
 
Steven Pemberton (Pri)
Stichting Centrum voor Wiskunde & Informatica
--
 
Zack Schmidt (Pri)
SureClinical
--
 
Kerstin Wiss-Holmdahl (Pri)
Swedish Association of Local Authorities & Regions
--
 
Mats Nilsson (Pri)
Swedish Defence Materiel Administration
--
 
Martin Torngren (Pri)
Swedish Royal Institute of Technology
--
 
Prasad Kethana (Pri)
Symantec Corp.
--
 
Darren Platt (Pri)
Symplified
--
 
Hal Aldridge (Pri)
Sypris Electronics
--
 
Robert Eberlein (Pri)
System Dynamics Society, Inc.
--
 
Andrew Johnston (Pri)
TELUS
--
 
Carlo Milono (Pri)
TIBCO Software Inc.
--
 
Brendan Jennings (Pri)
TSSG
--
 
Daniel Hinderink (Pri)
TYPO3 Association
--
 
David Green (Pri)
Tasktop Technologies Inc.
Yes
 
Heiko Krumm (Pri)
Technische Universitat Dortmund
Yes
 
Guido Walcher (Pri)
Telit Communications S.p.A.
--
 
Kevin Kennedy (Pri)
Telstra Corporation
--
 
Robert Lockhart (Pri)
Thales e-Security
--
 
Kathryn Breininger (Alt)
The Boeing Company
Yes
 
Charles Schulz (Pri)
The Document Foundation
--
 
Patrick Townsend (Pri)
Townsend Security, Inc.
--
 
Mikkel Brun (Pri)
Tradeshift Network Ltd.
Yes
 
Paul Haines (Pri)
Trane
--
 
Craig Gemmill (Pri)
Tridium, Inc.
--
 
Dallas Powell (Pri)
Tybera Development Group, Inc.
--
 
Pompeu Romeu (Pri)
UAB Institute of Law and Technology
--
 
Jin Youbing (Pri)
UOML Alliance
--
 
Joseph Mierwa (Pri)
URL Integration
--
 
Jerry Smith (Pri)
US Department of Defense (DoD)
Yes
 
Jeremiah Bruce (Pri)
US Department of Homeland Security
--
 
Ollie Gray (Pri)
US Military Health Services
--
 
Fred Bbaale (Pri)
Uganda Parliament
--
 
Juergen Totzke (Pri)
Unify GmbH & Co. KG
--
 
Asuncion Gomez-Perez (Pri)
Universidad Politecnica de Madrid
--
 
Adam Wyner (Pri)
University of Aberdeen
--
 
Monica Palmirani (Pri)
University of Bologna-CIRSFID
Yes
 
Toby Considine (Pri)
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
--
 
Ron Bowmaster (Pri)
Utah Administrative Office of the Courts
--
 
Ted Streete (Pri)
VCE
Yes
 
Winston Bumpus (Pri)
VMware, Inc.
--
 
Daniel Thornhill (Pri)
ValidSoft UK Ltd.
--
 
Paul Turner (Pri)
Venafi, Inc.
--
 
John Davis (Pri)
Veterans Health Administration
--
 
Steven Legg (Pri)
ViewDS
--
 
Luther Martin (Pri)
Voltage Security
--
 
Michael Yoder (Pri)
Vormetric, Inc.
Yes
 
Paul Fremantle (Pri)
WSO2
Yes
 
Greg Kazmierczak (Pri)
Wave Systems Corp.
--
 
Mark Tiggas (Pri)
Wells Fargo
--
 
Drummond Reed (Pri)
XDI.ORG
Yes
 
Anthony Rutkowski (Pri)
Yaana Technologies, LLC
--
 
Alan Conley (Pri)
Zenoss, Inc.
Yes
 
Ryan McVeigh (Pri)
Zia Consulting, Inc.
--
 
Dominik Zajac (Pri)
dc-square GmbH
--
 
Neil McEvoy (Pri)
iFOSSF (International Free and Open Source...
--
 
Karim Chichakly (Pri)
isee systems inc.
--